The Quran: The Scripture of Islam
John Gilchrist
Chapter One:
The Composition and
Character of the QurŸan
1. Muslim Reverence for the Quran
The Divine Excellence of the Islamic Scripture
The quran QurŸan is the holy scripture of the Muslim
peoples of the world. It is, in their eyes, the divine
authentication of the faith they boldly profess.
Although Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, is revered as
the greatest of all Allah's servants, he is regarded as
only a human messenger who lived and died like any
mortal. The cities of Mecca and Medina are likewise
regarded as possessing a special sanctity but, as with
all other tangible things in the Islamic world, they are
nothing more than material parts of the created order.
The quran QurŸan, however, came from above and is the
kalam of Allah, the divine word or speech expressing a
sifa, an actual quality of his own personality and
being. Even though the text of the quran QurŸan in book
form may well have been compiled from earthly materials,
the actual text represented is nonetheless no less than
a visual record of a divine communication sent down from
heaven itself.
During the early centuries of Islam a debate arose in
the Muslim world as to whether the quran QurŸan itself,
though the speech of Allah, was nevertheless created at
a point in time. A group of free-thinkers had arisen who
became known as the mutazila Muÿtazila with their
principal base in Baghdad, the city where the Abbasid
rule over the Muslim world had been established. They
did not doubt that the quran QurŸan was Allah's speech
but, believing that the human intellect was the ultimate
source of all knowledge, they taught that the quran
QurŸan was only a part of the created order which,
having been brought into existence at an undetermined
time, therefore had a beginning and could not be said to
be divine itself. The orthodox Muslims, however, argued
strongly in opposition to this view. They declared that,
being the Word of Allah, it could not be separated from
him and must have co-existed with him, uncreated,
through all eternity. It had, from this divine source,
simply been sent down and revealed to Muhammad at the
most appropriate point in human history. Their view
prevailed and ever since the quran QurŸan has been held
to be uncreated. The quran QurŸan itself teaches that
its written form on earth is merely a reflection of an
exact original inscribed in heaven:
Assuredly this is a Majestic quran QurŸan (inscribed)
in a Preserved Tablet. Surah 85. 21-22.
Most English translations of the quran QurŸan carry
the title "The Holy quran QurŸan" and Christians may be
inclined to think that it is the Muslim equivalent of
the Holy Bible. To the extent that each book
respectively is believed to be a form of divinely
inspired Scripture and is the written source of all
knowledge about God's revealed truth, the books are very
similar. There is a fundamental difference, however,
which has to be fully recognised if Muslim reverence for
the quran QurŸan is to be understood. The Bible is a
record of the writings of numerous prophets of God and
the apostles of Christ (in the Old and New Testaments
respectively) who wrote under the inspiration of the
Spirit of God and is therefore the preserved Word of God
for mankind. God himself often speaks directly through
these writings and his messages are recorded in numerous
books, yet the form of each always takes that of a human
author writing under the inerrant guidance of the Holy
Spirit. God's actual words are included as quotations of
prior direct communications to the relevant hearers.
Allah himself, however, is believed to be the actual
author of the quran QurŸan. Here, too, one finds
numerous passages where men, angels, prophets and even
Satan himself speak, yet this time it is their words
which are the quotations. Allah is always the speaker
and what was recorded by Muhammad at any time as the
quran QurŸan came to him was nothing less than a
revelation from Allah himself. Over a period of
twenty-three years it came to him through the medium of
the angel Jibril, said to be the angel Gabriel (Surah
2.97), after having been sent down to the first heaven
during the month of Ramadan. Allah speaks directly to
the Prophet in the quran QurŸan in these words:
And in Truth We have sent it down, and in Truth it
has descended, and We have sent you to be nothing more
than a Proclaimer and Warner. And it is a quran QurŸan
which We have (sent) piecemeal so that you may recite it
to men in stages, and We have sent it down accordingly.
Surah 17. 105-106.
The quran QurŸan itself often appeals to its own
uniqueness, stating that it contains a "beautiful
message" (Surah 39.23) and that no falsehood can come
near it (Surah 41.42). It further states that it has
been sent down in "pure Arabic" (Surah 16.103) and
challenges its detractors to attempt to produce the like
of it:
And if you are in doubt about what We have sent down
upon Our servant then produce a surah like it, and call
your witnesses besides Allah if you are truthful. Surah
2.23
A "surah" is a passage of writing and each chapter of
the quran QurŸan is thus called. The book literally
commands reverence and the utmost respect from its
adherents and Muslims accordingly are very devoted to
it. They are told to seek Allah's protection from the
Evil One before reciting it (Surah 16.98) and, in words
very similar to those set out in this text, they say
auuthuu Aÿuuthuu billaahi minash-shaytaanir-rajiim-"I
seek refuge in Allah from Satan the stoned". They follow
this by reading the bismillah, the heading of every
chapter of the quran QurŸan excepting the ninth surah,
which reads Bismillaahir-Rahmaanir-Rahiim-"In the Name
of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful".
Only then is the quran QurŸan itself recited. It is
furthermore essential that it be recited properly and
Muslims go to great lengths to learn by heart passages
to perfection.
To impress all the more upon Muslims that the book is
Allah's own Word the quran QurŸan constantly commands
them to bring him to remembrance as they recite it so
that its reading may not become an end in itself. Unlike
the Bible, which Christians generally read in their own
languages to discover its message, the Muslim finds
merit just in reciting the quran QurŸan in its original
Arabic even if he does not fully understand what he is
reading. It is in this recitation that the Muslim is
required to fix his mind on Allah:
And when the quran QurŸan is recited, listen
attentively and be silent so that you may find mercy.
And bring the Remembrance of your Lord into your soul
humbly and reverently, not loud of voice, in the morning
and evening. And do not be among the heedless. Surah 7.
204-205.
They are also commanded to recite it slowly (Surah
73.4) so that a spirit of reverent awareness of Allah
himself may always prevail. The "Remembrance" of Allah
is known popularly in Islam as al-Dhikr and the Sufi
Muslims of the world (the mystics of Islam) have special
ceremonies for this express purpose. The quran QurŸan
itself is called al-Dhikr on eight occasions (eg. Surah
15.6, 15.9) indicating its function as a summons to the
recollection of Allah and his glory.
The Historic Sanctity of the Written Text
During Muhammad's own lifetime portions of the quran
QurŸan were committed to writing on various materials
and not long after his death the whole book was codified
into a single text. Over the centuries copies were
transcribed and in recent times the quran QurŸan has
been printed and sold throughout the world. As can be
expected written quran QurŸans are very highly respected
and old handwritten manuscripts are especially prized.
Most ancient manuscripts of the quran QurŸan were
carefully written, not only to avoid mistakes, but to
reproduce the text as impressively as possible. The
early script known as kufi was soon adapted into a form
of art and calligraphy and transcribers meticulously
preserved the text by writing it out as perfectly as
they could. If just a stroke or letter was not
faultlessly reproduced they would scrap the page and
start again.
In later centuries such manuscripts became decorated
with colourful headings and the first chapter of the
quran QurŸan, known as Suratul-Fatihah ("The Opening
Chapter"), together with the first few verses of the
next chapter was beautifully outlined in oriental style.
Gold-leaf margins and outlines were mixed with dark blue
backgrounds and other colourful styles and motifs (often
floral) to give an appearance of grandeur to the text.
Such a decoration became known as an unwan and virtually
all the old handwritten texts have them. Other chapter
headings were also decorated in colourful style with
gold-leaf always a choice addition to give class to
their appearance while floral and arabesque medallions
alongside the text added to the charm of the manuscript.
The script changed as well after the first few
centuries and the naskhi script became the most popular
and most of the surviving copies of old quran QurŸan
manuscripts employed it. The similar thuluth script was
used at times and to this day a cursive script known as
maghribi ("western") is still used in countries such as
Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. Virtually all printed
quran QurŸans employ the naskhi script. The oldest
surviving passages of handwritten texts dating to the
second century of Islam are inscribed in a slanted text
known as al mail al-maÿil. More will be said on this
subject in the last section of this book.
As a result of the conviction that the quran QurŸan
is the uncreated kalam of Allah, certain scruples
surround handwritten or printed copies of its text. It
is a belief of the strictly orthodox that the quran
QurŸan should never be touched or opened by anyone other
than a true Muslim and certain ablutions should be
observed before this is done. The quran QurŸan itself
says "None shall touch it but those who are clean"
(Surah 56.79) and a tradition emphasises the need for a
proper ablution:
`Abd Allah b. Abu Bakr b. Hazm reported: The book
written by the Apostle of Allah (may peace be upon him)
for `Amr b. Hazm contained this also that no man should
touch the quran QurŸan without ablution. (Muwatta Imam
Malik, p.94).
It is also customary to have a small ledge as close
to the roof as possible upon which the quran QurŸan is
to be placed when it is not being read as it should
obtain the highest place in the home. Muslims will also
not leave a quran QurŸan on a chair, seat or bed as this
is believed to be common property where people have sat
or lain and unsuitable for such a book. For the same
reason a quran QurŸan should never be placed on the
ground where people have walked. Special wooden quran
QurŸan stands are provided in mosques upon which the
book can be placed while the reader is sitting on the
ground. The book should be kissed before it is opened
and, once read, it should be closed as a tradition
prevails among Muslims that Satan will come and read an
open quran QurŸan if no one else is reading it.
In closing it should be added that the grammatical
form of the quran QurŸan has become the standard by
which all good Arabic grammar is tested. It is presumed
beforehand that the text is unimpeachable and its style
likewise has become the norm by which all other Arabic
writings can be evaluated. Any deviation from its method
is regarded as a defect. Even in the realm of literary
criticism this principle holds sway. Many Western
scholars of Arabic history have believed that some of
the Arabic literature quoted in al-Baqillani's ijaz
Iÿjaz quran al-QurŸan is of a far superior quality to
the monotonous tone of the quran QurŸan, yet these works
perforce have to be regarded as subordinate to it simply
because the quran QurŸan is presumed to be the standard
by which all other poetry and literature must be
evaluated (and, accordingly, deemed inferior!). If
anyone was to attempt to "produce a surah like it" he
could be sure by these very principles of comparison
that he would have no prospect of success.
2. The Outline, Nature and Form of the Book
quranic
The Basic Structure of the QurŸanic Text
The quran QurŸan is almost the length of the New
Testament though its structure and form is very
different to it. It is comprised of one hundred and
fourteen surahs which are of unequal length and are not
compiled in any sort of chronological order.
The longest surahs occur first and, as one progresses
through the quran QurŸan, the chapters become shorter
and shorter so that, whereas the second surah has two
hundred and eighty-six verses, the last ten are made up
of only a few lines each.
Each surah has a title usually taken from a
significant word or name usually at the beginning of the
text. Some introduce the major theme of the surah, for
example the twelfth chapter which is known as
Suratu-Yusuf, "Chapter of Joseph", because he is its
central theme. It is interesting to discover that,
although other Biblical prophets are mentioned
throughout the quran QurŸan at various points, Joseph is
not referred to anywhere else in the book. It appears
that Muhammad only heard of him and the story of his
life during his later years as this surah is one of the
last said to have been revealed to him. Yet it is
obvious from the following verse taken from its
introduction that he was very moved by it:
We relate to you a most beautiful story, in that we
reveal to you this (part of the) quran QurŸan, though
before it you were among those ignorant of it. Surah
12.3
The nineteenth chapter is titled Suratu-Maryam, the
"Chapter of Mary", because the mother of Jesus is its
central theme. Nonetheless the quran QurŸan also has
another well defined division, this time into thirty
sections of virtually equal length, which Muslims also
describe as "chapters" or portions but which are known
by a different name. Each one is called a Juz' or, in
the popular Persian terminology, a Siparah (from si -
"thirty" - and parah - "portions"). There is no
correlation between these and the surahs of the quran
QurŸan and their identification in a written quran
QurŸan is not so obvious. In some they are marked by a
medallion alongside the text, in many printed quran
QurŸans by an accentuation or decoration of the first
verse of each successive passage. The purpose of this
division is to enable Muslims to recite the quran QurŸan
each night during the thirty nights of the holy month of
Ramadan, the month in which all Muslims are compelled to
fast from sunrise to sunset.
At the beginning of twenty-nine of the surahs of the
quran QurŸan, just after the bismillah, are certain
Arabic letters not forming a word. No one knows what
they mean and a number of interesting interpretations
and suggestions have been made to unravel their purpose.
Some learned Muslims have claimed that they have a
profound meaning known only to Muhammad himself but
nothing can be said of them with any certainty. At least
six surahs begin with the letters alif, lam, mim.
Nonetheless to Muslims generally the meaning of these
letters is not important as the recitation of the quran
QurŸan is regarded as just as vital as applying its
teachings. The very word al quran Al-Qur'an means "The
Recitation" and the practice is so seriously regarded by
Muslims that they will go to great lengths just to learn
its correct pronunciation, a pursuit now developed into
a science and known as ilmut tajwid ÿilmut-tajwid, the
"knowledge of pronunciation". The actual recitation of
the quran QurŸan is known as tilawah and it appears from
the following tradition that even Muhammad was concerned
to be scrupulous in this matter:
Gabriel used to recite the quran QurŸan before our
Prophet, may Allah bless him, once every year in
Ramadan. In the year in which he breathed his last he
recited it twice before him. Muhammad said: I hope our
style of reading conforms to the last recitation by
Gabriel.
(Ibn sad Saÿd, Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, Vol.2,
p.243).
Each surah of the quran QurŸan is also broken up into
brief sections known as rukuah rukuÿah as Muslims deem
it commendable to make a bow in reverence, a ruku rukuÿ,
at the end of the recitation of each of these sections.
They are designated in the quran QurŸan by the Arabic
letter ain ÿain in the margin and are accompanied by the
section number and number of verses in each case. Often
these designations are also embellished with floral
rosettes or other forms of medallion.
The quran QurŸan has a number of names for itself. It
is called quranul majid QurŸanul-Majid, "a Glorious
quran QurŸan" in Surah 85.21 and is elsewhere described
as quranul karim QurŸanul-Karim, "a Noble quran QurŸan"
(Surah 56.77). In Surah 36.2 its title is al quranul
hakim al-Qur'anul-Hakim, "the Wise quran QurŸan" and
many modern printed quran QurŸans employ one or more of
these names in the title-page of the book. One such
quran QurŸan is titled quran QurŸan Karim wa Furqan
Adhim, "a Noble quran QurŸan and an Exalted Criterion".
The title al-Furqan itself is applied to the quran
QurŸan in Surah 25.1 and it implies that the holy book
is the "criterion" by which all truth can be
distinguished from falsehood and all right from wrong.
Unique Features in the Form and Style of the Book
The quran QurŸan is very different to the Bible in
that it was compiled through the mediation of only one
man over a period of twenty-three years until the day of
his death. It was only this event that sealed the length
and content of the book. As long as Muhammad remained
alive there was always a possibility that fresh material
could be added.
The book itself, as stated already, has no
chronological sequence. While it covers large parts of
Biblical history and freely acknowledges the former
prophets, it not only does not attempt to give any kind
of historical sequence to the events it records but it
also offers no locality or time in history when they
occurred. The only place mentioned by name in the quran
QurŸan is Mecca (Bakkah in the text of Surah 3.96) and
no dating whatsoever of any event is recorded. Unless
the reader of the quran QurŸan is familiar with these
from another source-the Bible in particular - he has no
hope of being able to compose a picture of prophetic
history.
The story of Jonah is not dated in the Bible but the
short narrative in the book of the same name leaves no
doubt as to exactly what took place and where he went.
The story is patchily reproduced in the quran QurŸan in
Surah 37. 139-148 and is lacking vital details. The
cities of Tarshish and Nineveh are omitted and no
mention is made of the storm which led to him being
thrown overboard into the sea, though his condemnation
by lots is recorded. The reader is, it appears, presumed
to know the story in its basic details. On the positive
side the quran QurŸan can be viewed as a Scripture
intended for edification which need not concern itself
with factual or chronological details long receded into
history. It does not seem to be interested in the events
it records from a historical perspective nor in
localities or personalities as such. These are secondary
and incidental to the real theme-the relevance of
Allah's dealings and experiences with men in former
times as examples for the present and the future. It
engages with incidents and refers to them only to suit
its own purposes.
Nonetheless there are times when the reader cannot
help getting the impression that details may be lacking
as a result of insufficient information being available
to the book's author. The quran QurŸan records a story
similar to Nathan's parable to David in 2 Samuel 12. 1-6
but it states that the incident was a real one where two
disputants actually came into his presence, the one
complaining that the other had taken his only ewe when
he already had ninety-nine of his own (Surah 38. 22-23).
When David angrily pronounced judgment against the
second litigant, the text says he suddenly realised that
he had personally been tried through it and fell down
asking forgiveness. No indication is given as to what he
had done wrong nor how the story related to his own
offence. Surah 38.25 adds that Allah then forgave him
for "this", not hinting as to what it was. Again,
without recourse to the comprehensive narrative of the
whole event in the Bible, the reader cannot hope to
discover what the quran QurŸan is talking about.
A good example of the somewhat haphazard structure of
the quran QurŸan is found in the passage which follows
the story of Jonah in Surah 37. The next verses (Surah
37. 149-157) contain an admonition about the pagan Arab
belief that certain idols were the daughters of Allah.
How could he only have daughters while they had sons (in
the light of the Arab belief that sons were a blessing
but daughters a misfortune)? The passage has no
connection whatsoever with what went before it.
Virtually the whole of the quran QurŸan is compiled in
this way.
This last-mentioned passage, however, is symbolic of
one of the unique features of the quran QurŸan. The book
constantly employs argument and reasoning to convince
its hearers of its message. As an appeal to the pagan
Arabs not to persist in idolatry the quran QurŸan argues
strongly from the evidences around them of an obvious
single source of all creation (similar to Paul's
reasoning in Romans 1.20):
Who has made the earth your couch, and the heavens
your canopy; and sent down rain from heaven, and brought
forth fruits for your provision? So do not knowingly set
up rivals to Allah. Surah 2.22
Similar disputational reasoning is used in Surah 6.32
where it is argued that the amusements and frivolity of
life of this world are obviously temporal and that a
much wiser occupation would be the pursuit of a
permanent home in the hereafter. Will they not then
understand? Likewise, in a few verses further on, the
pagans are asked who they would appeal to if Allah's
wrath or the final Hour were suddenly to come upon them
(Surah 6.40). Against the Christians the quran QurŸan
charges "How can Allah have a son when he has no wife?"
(Surah 6.101). It is ironic that Mary asks a similar
question, not objectionably but by way of enquiry, in
Surah 3.47 where she too asks how she could have a son
when she had no husband? In the next verse the quran
QurŸan declares that Allah can do as he wills and that
he only has to speak the word kun ("Be!") and fayakun
("it comes to be"). Surah 19.21 adds that such things
are easy for Allah. By the same reasoning the quran
QurŸan should be able to answer its own question in
Surah 6.101. Nonetheless these passages are typical of
many where the spirit of argumentative reasoning is
employed in the book.
In the earlier passages of the quran QurŸan which
concentrate on sharp, prophetic pronouncements a
catching rhythmical prose is used with poetic effect.
This saj sajÿ style tends to fall away in the later
passages which deal with practical issues at greater
length but its use is one of the features of the quran
QurŸan. (It is important to remember that the earliest
portions of the quran QurŸan are generally found in the
surahs at the end of the book while the later portions
paradoxically appear at the beginning).
Although the quran QurŸan is said to be an eternal
Scripture and that the Prophet of Islam was commissioned
solely to communicate its contents without any
involvement in its compilation, it interacts with him
and addresses him personally on numerous occasions. He
is commanded to "Say" (qul) that he is only a man like
all others but that an inspiration has come upon him
(Surah 18.110); he is bidden to invite people to his
Lord's way with wisdom and beautiful preaching and to
argue in gracious terms (Surah 16.125); he is to strive
against unbelievers and hypocrites and to be firm with
them (Surah 66.9) and is admonished for frowning and
turning away from a blind man who might have profited
from his teaching, especially as he came to him in
earnest sincerity (Surah 80. 1-10).
The quran QurŸan is in many ways a unique book in its
outline, style and form. It can take time for a
non-Muslim to become acquainted with these features but
the exercise is essential if it is to be understood.
3. Important Surahs, Cliches and Passages
The Opening Chapter and Other Major Surahs
Some of the chapters and passages of the quran QurŸan
are regarded as having a special sanctity and their
recital is believed to be imperative and very
meritorious. The most important of these is the
Suratul-Fatihah which is unusual in its placing as the
opening chapter of the book. It has only seven verses,
unlike the other early surahs which are the longest in
its text. It is set out as a prayer to be addressed to
Allah:
In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the
Merciful. Praise be to Allah, the Lord of the worlds;
the Compassionate, the Merciful, Master of the Day of
Judgment. You alone we worship and from You alone we
seek help. Lead us into the Straight Path; the path of
those whom you have favoured, not those with whom you
are angry, or go astray. Surah 1. 1-7.
This is one of the few passages in the quran QurŸan
where Allah is not speaking directly but where the text
is put into the mouth of Muslims who worship him. Every
time Muslims pray or visit the mosque this prayer is
offered up to Allah in its Arabic original. It is
recited at festivals and special functions and on
numerous other occasions. Every Muslim child is taught
it as soon as it is old enough to learn. It is usually
finished with an amin, the equivalent of the Christian
"amen", and some old handwritten texts of the quran
QurŸan actually insert the word at the end of a chapter
as part of the text. The importance of this chapter can
be seen from the following quote where it is singled out
as the quran QurŸan's most significant passage:
And We have bestowed on you the Seven Oft-Repeated
(verses) and the Exalted quran QurŸan. Surah 15.87
There are numerous references to this surah in the
traditional Hadith literature. Muhammad is recorded as
stating that the "seven oft-repeated" (sabaul mathani
sabaÿul-mathani) were the seven verses of the chapter
and that "the Exalted quran QurŸan" (quranal adhim
al-Qur'anal-ÿAdhim) was also a title for the Surah
(Muwatta Imam Malik, p.37). Another popular title for it
is ummul quran Ummul-Qur'an, the "Mother of the quran
QurŸan". It is unique in that it is the only part of the
quran QurŸan where there is a human address to God.
Another tradition records Muhammad as stating very
emphatically that its recital is crucial to any time of
prayer:
He who does not recite Fatihat al-Kitab is not
credited with having observed prayer. (Sahih Muslim,
Vol.1, p.214).
Two other similar traditions record the Prophet as
personally defining this chapter as the most significant
in the quran QurŸan:
Shall I not teach you the most important Surah in the
quran QurŸan? He said it is "Praise be to Allah, the
Lord of the Worlds".
(Sahih al-Bukhari, Vol.6, p.490).
"All praise be to Allah, the Lord of the Universe" is
the epitome or basis of the quran QurŸan, the epitome or
basis of the Book, and the seven oft-repeated verses.
(Sunan Abu Dawud, Vol.1, p.382).
During the official prayers recited five times daily
it is only the Imam, the leader, who recites the actual
prayers including this Surah. Nonetheless another
tradition states that all Muslims should deliberately
recite the amin at the end of it. Muhammad himself
related that the angels of heaven themselves do so and
that every Muslim who coincided his amin with theirs
would have all his sins forgiven (Sahih al-Bukhari,
Vol.1, p.416). The importance of the opening chapter to
the Muslims of the world can hardly be over-emphasised.
Another short but very important chapter is known as
Suratul-Ikhlas (the "Chapter of Purity") and it reads as
follows:
In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the
Merciful. Say: He is Allah, the One; Allah, the Eternal
One; He does not beget, nor is he begotten, and like
unto him there is not one.
(Surah 112. 1-4).
The unity of Allah is the central theme of the quran
QurŸan and his sole and absolute Lordship over the
Universe is constantly emphasised. This is usually done
in opposition to the pagan idolatry of Muhammad's fellow
countrymen but it is also levelled against the Christian
belief in Jesus as the begotten Son of God. Muslims
today regularly employ it in apologetic literature
against Christianity and it is perhaps a defiant summary
of the basic polemic of Islam against other faiths.
Muhammad is recorded as saying that "this Surah is
equal to one-third of the quran QurŸan" (Sahih
al-Bukhari, Vol.6, p.494) and it is regularly recited as
Muslims believe this is the same as reciting a third of
the whole book. The Prophet once enquired of his
companions whether any of them was capable of reciting
one-third of it in one night and when they all expressed
surprise he again stated that this Surah "is equivalent
to a third of the quran QurŸan" (Sahih Muslim, Vol.2,
p.387). Another tradition records him one day hearing a
man reciting this chapter and saying that he was assured
of Paradise (Muwatta Imam Malik, p.99). One of his
companions also heard another Muslim reciting it
repeatedly one night and, taking the chapter to be a
very short one and seeing no point himself in reciting
it continuously, he objected to Muhammad but was
likewise told that it was by Allah's direction a third
of the book (Sunan Abu Dawud, Vol.1, p.383).
Only one other Surah is regarded with the same awe as
these two and that is the 36th chapter of the quran
QurŸan known as Suratu-Ya-Sin after the two letters ya
and sin appearing as typically unexplained letters at
its beginning. Muslim calligraphers have often selected
its first few verses as a subject for intricate artistic
skills as it has often been taught that this Surah is
the heart of the quran QurŸan and that Allah writes in
exchange for anyone who recites it the reward of reading
the whole quran QurŸan ten times. It is accordingly
regularly found in Muslim prayer booklets, very often
being printed by itself as a separate booklet.
Typical Cliches and Other Significant Passage
The quran QurŸan is a book full of sharp cliches
which add to its rhythmic character. Perhaps the most
obvious of these are the names given to Allah (usually
two) after a verse concentrating on him or his actions.
For example he is described as
Allaaha-Tawwaabaan-Rahiimaan, "Allah the Oft-Returning,
the Merciful" (Surah 4.64) at the end of a passage
declaring that unbelievers would have found Allah so if
they had only come to the Prophet after first disobeying
him and asking forgiveness with him likewise praying for
their forgiveness.
Another passage states that Allah raised Jesus up to
himself when the Jews sought to kill him, concluding wa
kaana Allaahu aziizaan ÿAziizaan Hakiimaan, "And Allah
is the Mighty, the Wise" (Surah 4.158). These names of
Allah were in time compiled into ninety-nine in all.
There are a few verses in the quran QurŸan of
exceptional character and one of the most well-known is
the ayatul-kursi, the "Throne verse". It is perhaps the
most eloquent declaration in the book of Allah's
universal sovereignty over his creation and starts and
finishes with two typical names indicative of his
surpassing power and glory. It stands out by itself in
the longest chapter of the quran QurŸan and reads as
follows:
Allah! There is no god but He, the Living, the
Everlasting. Neither slumber nor sleep seize Him. To Him
is everything that is in the heavens or on the earth.
Who is there that can intercede with Him except as He
permits. He knows what lies before them and what is
after them and they will comprehend nothing of His
knowledge save as He wills. His Throne covers the
heavens and the earth and He has no tiredness in
preserving them. He is the Most-High, the Exalted. Surah
2.255.
Although the Suratul-Fatihah is regarded as the most
important chapter in the quran QurŸan this particular
verse was said by Muhammad to be the foremost in the
book:
Ubayy b. kab Kaÿb said: The Apostle of Allah (may
peace be upon him) said: Abu al-Mundhir, which verse of
Allah's book that you have is the greatest? I replied:
Allah and his Apostle know best. He said: Abu
al-Mundhir, which verse of Allah's book that you have is
greatest? I said: Allah, there is no god but He, the
Living, the Eternal. Thereupon he struck me on the
breast and said: May knowledge be pleasant for you, Abu
al-Mundhir.
(Sunan Abu Dawud, Vol.1, p.383).
Another very striking verse in a passage from the
Medinan period of Muhammad's prophetic mission also
stands out. This time, although Allah is again its
central theme, the text moves into the mystical realm in
its description of his glory and it is accordingly
highly esteemed by the Sufis, the mystics of Islam. It
reads:
Allah is the light of the heavens and the earth. The
parable of His Light is as if there were a Niche and
within it a Lamp; the Lamp enclosed in a Glass; the
Glass as it were a Brilliant Star, lit from a blessed
tree, an Olive neither of the East nor the West, whose
Oil is well-nigh luminous though fire has scarce touched
it: Light upon Light! Allah guides whom He wills to His
light and Allah sets forth parables for men, and Allah
knows all things. Surah 24.35.
Mention should be made of the last two surahs of the
quran QurŸan. These are, like the opening chapter, very
short and once again the Muslim worshipper is the
speaker although on this occasion he does not address
his praise to Allah but recites an incantation seeking
protection firstly from the Lord of the dawn against the
mischief of talismans, the darkness, those who practise
secret spells and those who practise magical envy such
as the well-known "Evil-Eye" (Surah 113. 1-5). This
chapter is known as Suratul-Falaq ("The Dawn") while the
second is known as Suratul-Nas ("Mankind") as Allah is
here described as the Lord of mankind from whom
protection is sought against the mischief of the
Whisperers among both devils and men (Surah 114. 1-6).
Ayishah, one of Muhammad's wives, related that these
two stories had a special significance and that he
regularly used them. Every night he used to cup his
hands together and blow over them after reciting both
surahs as well as Suratul-Ikhlas. He would then rub his
hands over whatever parts of his body he could reach,
starting with his head, face and the front of his body.
He used to do this three times. Whenever he was ill he
would recite them again and blow breath over his body.
Ayishah at such times also used to recite them over him
and rub his hands over his body hoping for its blessings
(Sahih al-Bukhari, Vol.6, p.495). One of his companions
recorded the following incident where Muhammad specially
recommended the recitation of these two Surahs as a form
of protection:
`Uqbah b. `Amir said: While I was travelling with the
Apostle of Allah (may peace be upon him) between
Al-Juhfah and al-Abwa, a wind and intense darkness
enveloped us, whereupon the Apostle of Allah (may peace
be upon him) began to seek refuge in Allah, reciting: "I
seek refuge in the Lord of the dawn" and "I seek refuge
in the Lord of men". He then said: `Uqbah, use them when
seeking refuge in Allah, for no one can use anything to
compare with them for the purpose. He said: I heard him
reciting them when he led the people in prayer.
(Sunan Abu Dawud, Vol.1, p.383).
There is great merit to the Muslim in reciting any
part of the quran QurŸan but these surahs and passages
have an exceptional value and the Prophet's own
endorsement of each of them in turn has secured their
prominence and incessant recitation whenever
appropriate.
4. The Meccan and Medinan Surahs
The Style and Character or the Two Periods
One of the problems confronting any student of the
quran QurŸan is the fact that the book not only has no
chronological sequence but that the various surahs
themselves are often composed of passages from both the
Meccan and Medinan periods of Muhammad's mission.
Nonetheless there is a clear distinction between them
which can be discerned in the nature of the two phases.
While in Mecca Muhammad saw himself primarily as a
warner to draw his people away from idolatry and the
surahs from this time are generally prophetic and
exhortative in character. In Medina, however, Muhammad
was the leader of a community and the surahs from this
period in contrast to the Meccan passages are often
cumbersome and legalistic in content and style.
The Meccan surahs concentrate on the issues which
first impressed themselves upon Muhammad, in particular
the waywardness of his own people, the judgment to come,
and the destiny of all men to heaven or hell. Perhaps
the most striking issue here is al-Yaum, "the Day", the
Great Day of Judgment to come. The quran QurŸan
concentrates all its warnings around this awful event.
Graphic language is used to describe it. For example it
is described as "totally overwhelming" (Surah 88.1),
hell itself will be brought face-to-face with mankind on
it (Surah 89.23) and no soul shall have power to help
another for the Command, that day, shall belong to Allah
alone (Surah 82.19). The destiny of unbelievers shall be
horrific:
Some faces on that Day will be humiliated, labouring,
exhausted; roasting in a blazing fire, drinking from a
boiling hot spring; no food for them but a thorny
cactus, neither nourishing nor relieving hunger. Surah
88. 2-7.
On the other hand believers will be blessed that Day.
They will laugh at the unbelievers (Surah 83.34), their
surroundings will be as comfortable as they could wish
with a light of beauty and joy over them (Surah 76.11),
they will be lavishly adorned and will drink of a pure
and holy wine (Surah 76.21). Much of the quranic
QurŸanic concept of heaven follows Biblical principles
but the emphasis seems to be on the pleasure and ease of
the believer's circumstances rather than the renewed
knowledge of God's perfect character within them. In
contrast to the terrors of hell in the passage quoted
the text says of the inhabitants of paradise:
Other faces will be joyful, pleased with their
efforts, in a sublime Garden, hearing no vain-talk.
Therein will be a bubbling fountain, therein couches
raised up and goblets set out, cushions arrayed and
carpets spread out. Surah 88. 8-16.
In all this the Prophet is reminded that he is only a
warner for those who are ready to fear the Day (Surah
79.45). Yet, once he became established in Medina, the
tone began to change. In Mecca the quran QurŸan spoke
directly to Muhammad or to his countrymen generally, but
in Medina one finds the majority of passages addressing
the community of believers with the introduction Yaa
ayyuhallathiina aamanuu aaÿmanuu-"O you who truly
believe". What follows is often of a legislative nature
and most of the laws of Islam, the shariah shariÿah, are
derived from these sections. The concern here is chiefly
the social ethics of the Muslim ummah, the conduct of
campaigns and battles, general customs and behaviour and
religious scruples regarding such things as marriages
and deaths.
The Medinan surahs deal with the abolition of usury
and interest (Surah 2.278), the laws of inheritance
(Surah 4. 11-12), the prohibited degrees of relationship
(Surah 4.23), the property of orphans (Surah 4. 6-10),
the prohibitions on wine and gambling (Surah 5. 93-94)
and the like.
One of the great themes of these surahs is the person
of the Prophet of Islam, Muhammad himself. While he is
often addressed directly in the Meccan surahs, his own
position is seen to be no more than to be a communicator
of Allah's revelations. Here, however, he comes to the
fore and one of the great injunctions in these later
passages is to obey Allah and his Messenger (Surah
48.17) as loyalty to the one is seen to be inseparable
from faithfulness to the other.
In the Medinan surahs passages dealing with the Great
Day and the destiny of mankind give way to new
revelations dealing with the personal concerns of the
Prophet's private life. For example he is given a
special licence to take to himself and marry any
believing woman who is willing to devote herself to
him-a permission expressly granted to him and not to
believers generally "so that there should be no
difficulty for you" (Surah 33.50). In the next verse of
a book said to be eternal and of uncreated speech
preserved on a special tablet in heaven, he is told that
he can choose for himself which of his wives he would
like to be with at any time and that he would be doing
no wrong if he preferred one over another and showed
partiality to her. Believers are also commanded to send
their blessings on him and to salute him with all
respect because Allah and all his angels do so (Surah
33.56). Furthermore those who annoy and irritate him
(and, perforce, Allah as well) will be cursed by Allah
in both this world and the next (Surah 33.57). His
companions are even given strict details regarding
etiquette to be observed when approaching his chambers:
O you who truly believe! Do not enter the houses of
the Prophet until leave is given you for a meal and then
without you watching for its hour. But when you are
invited, then enter, and when you have had the meal,
disperse without lingering for idle talk for this
irritates the Prophet and he is ashamed before you-but
Allah is not ashamed to tell you the truth! Surah 33.53
The arrangement of the chapters of the quran QurŸan,
whereby the early Meccan surahs are placed at the end of
the book and the Medinan surahs at the beginning, is
confusing and the casual reader will miss the clear
transition but it is there-the sharp awareness of
eternal issues giving way to concerns of a more
practical, immediate and earthly nature.
quran
The Theory of Abrogation in the QurŸan
One of the unique features of the quran QurŸan is its
teaching that Allah can abrogate earlier teachings in
his Scriptures by substituting something else in their
place. This applies not only to the Scriptures prior to
Islam but to the quran QurŸan itself. There is a clear
doctrine in the book that some of its earlier verses are
cancelled by later revelations. Muhammad always saw
Allah as the absolute sovereign of the universe and the
idea that he could alter his commands and replace them
obviously appeared to be in harmony with his supreme
rule and he saw no reason to question it. The most
prominent verse in the quran QurŸan setting forth the
doctrine reads:
We do not abrogate a verse or let it be forgotten
without bringing a better or similar one. Do you not
know that Allah has power over all things? Surah 2.106
In the early days of Islam there was no dispute about
the meaning of this text. It was universally accepted
that it meant that certain verses and passages of the
quran QurŸan could be substituted by later ones and
lists were drawn up of texts abrogated by later
revelations. For example in one place the quran QurŸan
teaches that the drinking of wine can have both good and
bad effects (Surah 2.219) and when Muhammad first
established himself as the ruler of the Muslim community
at Medina his followers were told not to come to prayers
in a drunken state (Surah 4.43). Later, however, the
consumption of alcohol was abolished altogether (Surah
5. 93-94).
Two of the greatest of the early commentators of the
quran QurŸan, Baidawi and Zamakhshari, attempted to
interpret the purpose of this facet of quranic QurŸanic
revelation in the context of a definite substitution of
one passage by another. Zamakhshari taught that Surah
2.106 was revealed to counter the objections of the
pagan Arabs that Muhammad at times would command his
followers to do a certain thing and would later forbid
it and command the opposite. He believed, unlike other
commentators who held that the abrogated verses remained
in the quran QurŸan, that Allah expressly removes
(azala) one passage to insert another. He commands the
angel of communication, Jibril, to announce that one
passage is cancelled either by its abolition or by its
replacement with another passage.
Baidawi likewise taught that the mansukh verse, the
"abrogated" text, became of no effect. It was no longer
a pious act to recite it and no law based on it could be
valid any longer. He argued that the naskh verses which
came in the place of the cancelled texts were inserted
as each occasion required. Laws are formulated by Allah
for the good of mankind and as the needs and
circumstances change with time and the individual it
becomes necessary for the rules that regulate them to be
adapted as well. What may be beneficial at one time can
be harmful at another. So Allah reserves to himself the
right to alter his revelations as he pleases.
It is not possible to determine which texts, if any,
were taken out of the quran QurŸan once they were
abrogated but another typical example of a new passage
overruling an earlier one due to force of circumstances
is found in the context of praying and reading the quran
QurŸan at night. At Mecca the practice went on into the
early hours of the morning when the early Muslims were
not so pressed with communal affairs. In one of the
earliest passages to be revealed they were commanded to
pray for approximately half of each night and to recite
the quran QurŸan at the same time (Surah 73. 2-4). Once
they were settled in Medina, however, the daily concerns
of attending to the needs of the growing Muslim
community made it very hard for them to maintain long
hours awake at night and so the command was relaxed. The
same Surah goes on in a later passage to say that, while
Allah is aware that they stand up to half the night in
prayer, he knows they cannot keep count of the time they
are so engaged and so he only expects them to read the
quran QurŸan and pray for as much as may be comfortable
to them. He knows that some are ill and others are weary
travellers and that yet others are fighting in campaigns
(Surah 73.20). Thus the fixed injunctions of the earlier
passage were abrogated.
There are other verses in the quran QurŸan clearly
teaching that Allah can change his revelations and
substitute one for another as he pleases:
When We exchange a verse in place of another verse,
and Allah knows best what he is sending down, they say
"You are but a forger!", but most of them have no
understanding.
Surah 16.101
Allah abolishes and establishes what he pleases for
with him is the Mother of the Book. Surah 13.39
The doctrine of abrogation of actual verses of the
quran QurŸan was clearly taught and indeed fixed by the
fuqaha, the early jurists of Islam. Nonetheless modern
Muslim scholars, chastened by the suggestion that the
quran QurŸan is not a perfect scripture if some of its
texts have been superseded by others, or at worse
actually removed from the book, attempt to prove that
the quran QurŸan is really teaching that what Allah does
is to abrogate some of the previous scriptures (each of
which is known in the quran QurŸan as a kitab, a "book")
and not passages of the quran QurŸan as such.
This line of reasoning cannot be accepted as the
quran QurŸan never says that a kitab is abrogated in its
entirety but rather that Allah substitutes one ayah for
another ayah (Surah 16.101). The word often means
"signs" (such as the miracles of Jesus) but throughout
the quran QurŸan it also refers to actual verses of the
book itself. Allah has sent down his revelations (or
verses - ayat) to Muhammad which none but the perverse
reject (Surah 2.99). It was the practice of cancelling
verses or overruling their contents with later texts
that made the Prophet's opponents charge him with being
a forger as this seemed to be a convenient way to
explain changes in the actual text of the quran QurŸan
itself.
In Surah 2.106 the text speaks not only of Allah's
revelations being abrogated but also being forgotten by
his power-this could hardly refer to previous scriptures
which were well-known and preserved throughout the known
world in thousands of manuscripts. It could only refer
to actual verses of the quran QurŸan which had come to
be neglected and forgotten by Muhammad and his
companions over a period of time.
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